AMERICAN LITERACY RATES OVER TIME: HISTORICAL TRENDS AND INSIGHTS

American literacy rates have undergone significant changes influenced by historical events and educational reforms. In Colonial America, local schools and religious teachings fostered initial literacy. The Civil War highlighted educational inequalities, prompting literacy campaigns focused on formerly enslaved individuals. The 19th century witnessed the establishment of public schools aimed at universal access, while the early 20th century saw gradual improvements driven by industrialization and targeted education for immigrants. The post-WWII era marked a literacy surge due to economic growth and technological advancements. Today, challenges remain, including digital literacy gaps, indicating the need for continued advocacy and innovative strategies for improvement.

KEY TAKEAWAYS

• The establishment of public schools in the 19th century significantly increased access to education and improved literacy rates across diverse populations.
• Post-Civil War literacy campaigns focused on educating formerly enslaved individuals, highlighting the role of community-driven initiatives in promoting literacy.
• Economic prosperity and government programs after WWII contributed to a notable rise in literacy rates across the United States.
• Digital literacy gaps currently exacerbate existing educational disparities, particularly affecting marginalized communities and their access to resources.
• Advocacy movements historically emphasized the importance of educational equity, laying the groundwork for modern literacy reforms and public library systems.

EARLY LITERACY IN COLONIAL AMERICA

Examining early literacy in Colonial America reveals a complex landscape shaped by social, economic, and religious factors. The emergence of colonial reading practices was considerably influenced by the advent of printing presses, which facilitated the dissemination of religious texts and educational materials. These presses allowed for the proliferation of pamphlets, books, and newspapers, thereby fostering a culture of reading that was essential for both spiritual and civic engagement.

Local schools and informal education systems emerged as key components of early education, aiming to improve community literacy. In many colonies, education was primarily the responsibility of families and local communities, with emphasis placed on teaching children to read the Bible. This religious influence was paramount, as communities believed literacy was necessary for understanding scripture and participating in religious life.

Women’s roles in early literacy also warrant attention; while often excluded from formal educational institutions, many women assumed responsibilities for teaching children within the home. This domestic education contributed to community literacy, as mothers imparted reading skills and moral teachings.

Apprentice training further supplemented early education, as young individuals learned trades while also acquiring basic literacy skills. This dual focus on vocational training and reading prepared them for active participation in society.

Ultimately, the intertwining of religious influences, community engagement, and local educational initiatives laid the groundwork for the evolving landscape of literacy in Colonial America, highlighting the importance of serving others through education and shared knowledge.

The Impact of the Civil War

The Civil War marked a considerable turning point in American literacy rates, as the upheaval of conflict necessitated a reevaluation of educational priorities and access. The war exposed stark educational disparities, particularly in the Southern states, where socioeconomic factors had historically limited access to education for many, especially African Americans.

The aftermath of the Civil War catalyzed a movement toward civil rights and educational reform, which aimed to address these inequalities. In the post-war period, various literacy campaigns emerged, seeking to uplift the formerly enslaved population and improve Southern education. These initiatives were often community-driven, focusing on establishing schools and providing resources to enhance literacy.

Historical comparisons reveal that while the North had established systems of public education, the South lagged considerably, necessitating targeted efforts to address these deficits. The Reconstruction era saw the implementation of post-war reforms aimed at integrating education into the broader civil rights framework.

These reforms were met with resistance, highlighting the complexities of changing societal attitudes toward education and race. Nevertheless, the emphasis on literacy as a fundamental right began to gain traction, laying the groundwork for future educational advancements.

Education Reform in the 19th Century

The 19th century witnessed significant transformations in American education, marked by the establishment of public schools aimed at providing universal access to education. Adult literacy levels in the U.S. reveal a deep divide in reading and comprehension skills across the population. The latest data shows that more than half of adults read below a sixth-grade level, with millions struggling to complete everyday reading tasks. These statistics underscore the urgent need for nationwide support and accessible programs. Strengthening adult literacy is essential to individual success and national progress.

This period also saw the emergence of literacy advocacy movements that championed the importance of reading and writing as essential skills for citizenship and personal empowerment.

Together, these initiatives played a vital role in shaping literacy rates and advancing educational opportunities across diverse populations.

Rise of Public Schools

As the 19th century unfolded, a significant transformation in American education emerged, driven by a growing recognition of the need for public schooling to promote literacy and civic engagement. The establishment of public schools marked a pivotal shift towards free education, aimed at providing equitable learning opportunities for all children, regardless of socioeconomic status.

This movement underscored the importance of community involvement in fostering educational environments that supported both learning and social cohesion. In the United States, 59 million adults read at or below Level 1, the lowest level on a five-level scale. This equates to roughly 28% of the adult population—or nearly one in three people—who can read only short sentences with foundational words and basic information. Literacy rates directly impact our economy, society, and nation’s sustainability. Raising adult reading levels would improve personal potential, family health, community involvement, and economic mobility.

In response to the demand for improved educational standards, efforts were made to enhance teacher training and curriculum development. These initiatives sought to address funding disparities that often plagued public school systems, particularly in underserved areas.

Community stakeholders recognized that robust school infrastructure was essential for effective teaching and learning, leading to greater parental engagement in advocating for better resources and facilities.

The rise of public schools represented a commitment to educational equity, as it aimed to dismantle barriers that prevented access to quality education. As communities rallied around this cause, the collective vision for a literate and informed citizenry emerged, laying the foundation for future educational reforms that would continue to shape American literacy rates.

Literacy Advocacy Movements

Amidst the burgeoning public school movement of the 19th century, various literacy advocacy movements emerged, focusing on the urgent need for educational reform and increased access to reading and writing instruction.

These movements were driven by a commitment to literacy activism, emphasizing the importance of educational equity for all social classes. Grassroots movements played a pivotal role in mobilizing communities, establishing community programs aimed at teaching reading skills to marginalized populations.

Advocacy campaigns focused on raising awareness about the necessity of policy reforms that would support equitable access to education. Organizations such as the American Anti-Slavery Society often included reading initiatives as part of their broader mission, illustrating the intersection between literacy and social justice.

In addition, the establishment of public libraries in urban areas reflected a concerted effort to democratize literacy, allowing individuals from diverse backgrounds to engage with literature and learning.

As these advocacy efforts gained momentum, they laid a robust foundation for future educational reforms. The collective impact of these movements not only enhanced literacy rates but also fostered a culture that valued education as a fundamental right, paving the way for ongoing advancements in American literacy.

The Rise of Public Education

Public education emerged as a transformative force in American society during the 19th century, fundamentally altering the landscape of literacy and learning. As states began to establish publicly funded schools, educational accessibility expanded considerably, allowing children from diverse backgrounds to receive an education previously reserved for the affluent. This shift prompted substantial curriculum development, emphasizing not only basic literacy but also critical thinking and civic responsibility.

The evolution of teaching methodologies became paramount as educators sought effective ways to engage students and foster a love of learning. However, funding disparities often hampered progress, with schools in affluent areas receiving more resources than those in economically disadvantaged communities. This inequity highlighted the necessity for community involvement and advocacy to ascertain that all students had access to quality education.

Teacher training programs began to emerge, focusing on equipping educators with the skills needed to adapt to different learning styles and utilize specialized instructional resources from platforms such as the engineering teacher shop to support engaging classroom instruction. Parental engagement also became increasingly recognized as a crucial component in the educational process, fostering collaboration between schools and families to enhance student outcomes.

Despite considerable advances, the rise of public education revealed persistent challenges, particularly in addressing the needs of underrepresented populations. As society continues to grapple with these issues, the commitment to improving educational accessibility, refining curriculum development, and increasing community and parental involvement remains essential to fostering an inclusive educational environment that promotes literacy for all.

LITERACY RATES IN THE 20TH CENTURY

The 20th century marked a significant evolution in American literacy rates, characterized by distinct trends that reflect broader societal changes. Childhood literacy efforts are essential to reducing the rates of adult illiteracy. Some 36 million adults in the U.S. don’t have basic reading, writing, and math skills above a third-grade level, according to ProLiteracy. And adult education programs are insufficient to meet the demand for services. If literacy can be improved during childhood development, it opens new opportunities for individuals later in life.

Early in the century, literacy rates experienced gradual increases, driven by expanding public education initiatives.

Following World War II, a surge in literacy growth can be attributed to education reforms that prioritized accessibility and quality, fundamentally reshaping the landscape of American literacy.

Early 20th Century Trends

During the early 20th century, literacy rates in the United States experienced notable fluctuations influenced by various social, economic, and educational reforms. The period witnessed a significant influx of immigrants, necessitating the development of targeted immigrant education programs. These initiatives aimed to equip newcomers with essential language skills, thereby facilitating their integration into American society.

However, disparities in access to education persisted, particularly between urban and rural communities. Rural schooling faced unique challenges, often characterized by inadequate funding, limited resources, and a shortage of qualified teachers. Consequently, educational opportunities in these regions lagged behind their urban counterparts, contributing to lower literacy rates among rural populations.

The establishment of the Progressive Education Movement during this time sought to address these issues by advocating for more inclusive and practical educational approaches, yet the impact varied widely across different communities.

Moreover, societal changes, including the rise of industrialization, further influenced literacy trends. As the economy shifted, the demand for a literate workforce increased, prompting reforms that emphasized vocational training alongside traditional academic subjects.

This complex interplay of factors during the early 20th century laid the groundwork for subsequent developments in American literacy.

Post-War Literacy Growth

Following World War II, the United States experienced a significant surge in literacy rates, driven by a combination of economic prosperity, educational reforms, and government initiatives aimed at expanding access to education. The post-war period saw an increase in disposable income, which allowed families to invest in education. Additionally, suburban expansion created new communities where educational institutions flourished, fostering an environment conducive to learning.

Technological advancements, such as the introduction of television and later computers, further influenced literacy by providing new avenues for information dissemination and education. Government policies, including the G.I. Bill, facilitated access to higher education for veterans, contributing to a more educated populace.

The following table summarizes key factors influencing post-war literacy growth:

Cultural influences and demographic shifts also played critical roles, as diverse communities began to emphasize literacy as a pathway to success. Collectively, these elements marked a transformative era in American literacy.

Impact of Education Reforms

Reforming education systems throughout the 20th century greatly impacted literacy rates in the United States, as innovative curricula and teaching methodologies emerged to address the diverse needs of students. Curriculum changes introduced during this period emphasized critical thinking and problem-solving, moving away from rote memorization.

Teacher training programs evolved to equip educators with the skills necessary to navigate the complexities of diverse classrooms. Standardized testing emerged as a tool to measure student achievement, although it also highlighted access disparities among different socioeconomic groups.

Parental involvement became increasingly recognized as an essential component of literacy development, prompting schools to foster community engagement and collaboration. However, funding issues often limited the effectiveness of these reforms, especially in under-resourced areas.

The advent of literacy technology also began to play a role, offering new avenues for learning and engagement. Policy impacts, including the establishment of adult education programs, aimed to address literacy challenges beyond traditional schooling and are often evaluated alongside broader college education statistics to assess long-term educational attainment.

The Digital Age and Literacy

The advent of the digital age has profoundly transformed the landscape of literacy in America, reshaping not only the methods by which individuals acquire reading and writing skills but also the very definition of literacy itself.

Digital literacy has emerged as a crucial competency, encompassing the ability to navigate, evaluate, and create information using a range of digital technologies. This shift has been facilitated by the rise of online education platforms, which have expanded access to learning opportunities, particularly for underserved populations.

Moreover, technology integration in classrooms has fostered a more interactive learning environment, promoting multimedia literacy that combines text, audio, and visual content. As e-reading trends gain traction, individuals are increasingly engaging with literature in digital formats, reflecting changes in consumption and comprehension styles.

Social media, while often criticized for its impact on communication, has also served as a tool for fostering literacy through informal learning and peer collaboration.

Nevertheless, the digital age has revealed significant challenges, particularly the digital divides that persist in various demographics. Access to technology remains uneven, hindering equitable information access and participation in virtual learning environments.

Additionally, the importance of coding education has emerged as a crucial component of literacy, equipping individuals with essential skills for future job markets.

Current Challenges and Future Trends

Contemporary literacy in America faces a myriad of challenges that reflect broader societal shifts and technological advancements. One of the most pressing issues is digital literacy, an essential skill in an increasingly tech-driven world. As many daily tasks shift online, individuals lacking digital proficiency are at a significant disadvantage, exacerbated by socioeconomic factors that limit access to technology. This disparity is particularly pronounced among marginalized communities, where access to devices and high-speed internet remains inadequate.

Adult education programs play an important role in addressing these gaps, yet they often struggle with funding and resources. Many adults seeking to improve their literacy skills face multilingual challenges, as they may require tailored programs that accommodate diverse linguistic backgrounds. This highlights the need for inclusive community initiatives that foster a supportive learning environment.

Moreover, reading interventions tailored to various age groups are key for addressing literacy deficits. Effective literacy assessments are necessary to identify areas of improvement and track progress, particularly when comparing literacy rates by state to understand regional disparities in educational outcomes. By integrating technology and innovative teaching methodologies, educators can better serve populations at risk of falling behind.

Looking to the future, a collaborative approach that includes educators, policymakers, and community organizations will be significant in overcoming these challenges. Prioritizing access to technology, promoting adult education, and enhancing literacy assessments will contribute to a more literate and empowered society, ultimately bridging the gap that persists in American literacy rates.

RELATED STUDIES ABOUT AMERICAN LITERACY RATES OVER TIME

The evolution of American literacy rates reflects a tapestry woven with threads of social change, conflict, and technological advancement. From the early days of colonial education to the sweeping reforms of the 19th century, each era has contributed to the current landscape of literacy. As digital platforms emerge and reshape communication, challenges persist, reminding society of the importance of equitable access to education. The future of literacy remains an intricate dance between opportunity and obligation, shaping the nation’s collective narrative.

Preparing Vocational Students for the Digital Economy – Exploring the Role of Digital Literacy, Entrepreneurial Agility, and Digital Entrepreneurship Education

1. Purpose and Background

The rapidly growing digital economy demands a workforce equipped with high-level digital skills and adaptive abilities. Vocational schools in Indonesia play a critical role in preparing graduates for either direct employment or entrepreneurship. However, a persistent skills gap exists between vocational graduates and industry expectations, particularly in digital and entrepreneurial competencies. This study investigates how digital literacy (DL) , entrepreneurial agility (EA) , and digital entrepreneurship education (DEE) influence vocational students’ readiness to participate in the digital economy. It examines both direct and indirect effects, positioning EA and DEE as key mediators.

2. Theoretical Framework

The study is grounded in three complementary theories:

• Human Capital Theory: Investment in digital skills and education enhances individual productivity and economic value.
• Resource-Based View (RBV): Digital literacy and entrepreneurial agility are intangible, valuable, and hard-to-replicate resources that provide a competitive advantage.
• Entrepreneurial Event Theory: Perceived feasibility and desirability of entrepreneurship are shaped by digital competencies and adaptive capabilities, influencing entrepreneurial intentions.

3. Methodology

A quantitative, explanatory research design was employed. Data were collected via a survey of 302 students from three pilot Public Vocational Schools in Jakarta, selected for their intensive digital entrepreneurship programs. Participants were in grades XI or XII and had engaged in digital entrepreneurship modules and simulations.

The study used validated Likert-scale questionnaires adapted from prior research to measure:

• Digital Literacy (11 items)
• Entrepreneurial Agility (4 items)
• Digital Entrepreneurship Education (5 items)
• Digital Economy Readiness (5 items)

Data were analyzed using Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM) , including measurement model validation (convergent and discriminant validity) and structural model testing (path coefficients, mediation, and model fit).

4. Key Findings

• Direct Effects (All Hypotheses Supported):
  • Digital Literacy significantly and positively affected Entrepreneurial Agility, Digital Entrepreneurship Education, and Digital Economy Readiness.
  • Entrepreneurial Agility significantly affected both Digital Entrepreneurship Education and Digital Economy Readiness.
  • Digital Entrepreneurship Education significantly affected Digital Economy Readiness.
• Indirect (Mediation) Effects (All Hypotheses Supported):
  • Digital Literacy indirectly affected Digital Economy Readiness through:
    • Entrepreneurial Agility alone.
    • Digital Entrepreneurship Education alone.
    • A serial mediation path through both Entrepreneurial Agility and Digital Entrepreneurship Education.
• Entrepreneurial Agility indirectly affected Digital Economy Readiness through Digital Entrepreneurship Education.
• Model Strength: The model explained 52.2% of the variance in Digital Entrepreneurship Education and 35.2% in Digital Economy Readiness, indicating moderate to strong predictive power.

5. Discussion and Implications

The results demonstrate that digital literacy is a foundational asset that directly and indirectly prepares students for the digital economy by enhancing their adaptability and their ability to absorb digital entrepreneurship education. Entrepreneurial agility is crucial for navigating a volatile digital landscape, and digital entrepreneurship education serves as a critical bridge, translating skills and adaptability into practical economic participation.

Theoretical Implications:

• Extends Human Capital Theory by showing digital literacy as a strategic, not just technical, asset.
• Supports RBV by confirming digital literacy and agility as intangible resources that foster competitive advantage.
• Enriches Entrepreneurial Event Theory by empirically linking digital competencies to entrepreneurial perceptions and readiness.

Practical Implications:

• For Educators and Schools: Integrate digital literacy and entrepreneurial agility into core vocational curricula through project-based learning, real-world simulations, and business model development. Invest in teacher professional development to deliver digital entrepreneurship content effectively.
• For Policymakers: Expand pilot entrepreneurship programs to more schools; strategically invest in digital infrastructure, industry partnerships, and curriculum alignment with labor market demands to reduce youth unemployment.
• For Curriculum Developers: Revise learning outcomes to include creativity, adaptability, and practical digital skill application. Establish feedback loops with industry to ensure relevance.

6. Conclusion

This study provides robust empirical evidence that digital literacy, entrepreneurial agility, and digital entrepreneurship education are synergistic determinants of vocational students’ readiness for the digital economy. The combination of these factors produces a stronger positive impact than any single element alone, equipping students with the necessary abilities to compete, innovate, and create value in a technology-driven business environment.

7. Limitations and Future Research

The study is limited to pilot schools in Jakarta, limiting generalizability. It relied solely on quantitative data; future research should incorporate qualitative methods for deeper insights. Expanding the geographic scope and exploring additional factors (e.g., family support, social environment) would enhance understanding of students’ digital economy readiness.

Shaping Digital Entrepreneurial Intention in Higher Education – The Role of Entrepreneurship Education, Creativity, and Digital Literacy Among Chinese University Students

1. Purpose and Background

As digital technologies reshape the global economy, fostering digital entrepreneurial intention (DEI) —the intention to start digitally enabled ventures—among university students has become an urgent educational goal. In China, national strategies like “Digital China” prioritize preparing students for technology-driven careers. However, empirical research on how entrepreneurship education promotes DEI, particularly through creativity and digital literacy, remains limited. This study investigates how different forms of entrepreneurship education (theoretical vs. practice-based) influence DEI among Chinese university students, examining the mediating role of creativity and the moderating role of digital literacy (digital competence and social media use).

2. Theoretical Framework

The study integrates two complementary theories:

• Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB): Entrepreneurship education shapes attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control, influencing intention.
• Social Cognitive Career Theory (SCCT): Learning experiences and self-efficacy (especially in digital contexts) shape goal-directed behaviors. Creativity serves as a cognitive mediator, and digital literacy acts as a boundary condition moderating the education-intention relationship.

3. Methodology

A survey was conducted with 1,188 graduating students from a “double first-class” university in Guangdong, China. To address selection bias and strengthen causal inference, Propensity Score Matching (PSM) was applied, comparing students with and without entrepreneurship education based on observed covariates (gender, major, education level, family background). Three matching methods were used: kernel, radius, and nearest-neighbor matching. Key variables measured:

• Entrepreneurship Education: Categorized as theoretical (courses, seminars) and practice-based (competitions, simulations).
• DEI: Single-item, 5-point Likert scale on intention to engage in digital entrepreneurship.
• Creativity: Single-item self-assessment.
• Digital Literacy: Digital competence (self-rated skills) and social media use (purpose-based index).

4. Key Findings

• Direct Effects (H1 Supported): Entrepreneurship education significantly increases DEI. Practice-based education (ATT = 0.257) has a stronger effect than theoretical education (ATT = 0.175).
• Mediation (H2 Supported): Creativity mediates the relationship between practice-based education and DEI (ATT for creativity = 0.203, p < 0.01). Theoretical education had no significant effect on creativity.
• Moderation (H3 Supported): Digital literacy moderates the education-DEI relationship.
  • Students with high digital competence benefit more (ATT = 0.382) than those with low competence (ATT = 0.171).
  • Growth-oriented social media use (e.g., professional networking, news browsing) amplifies the effect, while entertainment-oriented use (e.g., chatting, hobby groups) diminishes it.
• Synergistic Effects: The most substantial gains in both DEI (ATT = 0.371) and creativity (ATT = 0.203) occur when students receive both theoretical and practical education, highlighting their complementarity.

5. Discussion and Implications

This study provides robust empirical evidence that entrepreneurship education, particularly practice-based formats, fosters DEI by enhancing creativity. Digital literacy acts as a critical amplifier: students with stronger digital skills and purposeful social media engagement derive significantly greater benefits.

Theoretical Contributions:

• Extends TPB and SCCT to the digital entrepreneurship context.
• Positions creativity as a mediating mechanism and digital literacy as a moderating boundary condition.
• Distinguishes between theoretical and practice-based education formats and between growth-oriented and entertainment-oriented social media use.

Practical Implications:

• For Universities: Prioritize experiential, practice-based learning (competitions, simulations, incubators) integrated with strong theoretical foundations. Tailor programs to students’ digital skill levels.
• For Educators: Embed growth-oriented social media use into curricula (e.g., using LinkedIn, Xiaohongshu for entrepreneurial projects). Foster online peer networks and mentorship.
• For Policymakers: Address digital infrastructure gaps, incentivize university-industry collaborations, and include DEI indicators in educational performance metrics. Support under-resourced institutions with targeted funding.

6. Conclusion

This study advances an integrated framework linking entrepreneurship education, creativity, and digital literacy to DEI. The findings underscore that effective digital entrepreneurship education must be experiential, digitally integrated, and ecosystem-embedded to prepare students for success in the evolving digital economy. Future research should employ longitudinal designs and expand sampling across diverse regions.

AI Literacy, Educational Level, and Parenting Self-Efficacy of Children’s Education Among Parents of Primary School Students

1. Purpose and Background

Parenting self-efficacy (PSE)—parents’ confidence in their ability to successfully manage parenting tasks—is a crucial determinant of parenting quality and children’s developmental outcomes. In today’s digital age, children are exposed to Artificial Intelligence (AI) from an early age, particularly in educational contexts. This raises an important question: does parents’ own AI literacy contribute to their confidence in guiding their children’s education? While parents’ educational level is a known predictor of PSE, no previous research has examined the role of parents’ AI literacy. This study addresses this gap by investigating the associations among parents’ AI literacy, educational level, and PSE regarding children’s education, and examining whether AI literacy mediates the relationship between education and PSE.

2. Theoretical Framework and Hypotheses

The study is grounded in Belsky’s determinants of parenting model, which posits that parental factors have the greatest impact on parenting. It extends this model by integrating AI literacy as a novel parent-related factor in the digital age. The research hypothesizes:

• H1: Parents’ AI literacy (and its subfactors: AI knowledge, AI readiness, AI relevance, and AI attitude), educational level, and PSE are significantly and positively related.
• H2: The subfactors of AI literacy significantly mediate the relationship between parents’ educational level and PSE.

3. Methodology

A quantitative cross-sectional design was employed. Data were collected via online surveys from 160 parents (124 mothers, 36 fathers) of primary school students (Grades 4-6) from seven local schools in Hong Kong. Validated scales measured:

• Educational Level: Coded on a 9-point scale from primary school to doctoral degree.
• Parenting Self-Efficacy (PSE): A 6-item scale adapted from Liu and Leighton (2021), focusing on parents’ confidence in helping their children with school-related tasks (α = 0.75).
• AI Literacy: A 15-item scale adapted from Chiu et al. (2021), measuring four subfactors: AI knowledge (α = 0.93), AI readiness (α = 0.91), AI relevance (α = 0.82), and AI attitude (α = 0.95). Overall reliability was α = 0.95.

Data were analyzed using Spearman correlation and path analysis in RStudio.

4. Key Findings

• Significant Positive Correlations (H1 Supported):
  • Parents’ educational level was significantly correlated with overall AI literacy (r = 0.50, p < .001), all four AI subfactors, and PSE (r = 0.36, p < .001).
  • PSE was significantly correlated with overall AI literacy (r = 0.30, p < .001) and all four AI subfactors, with AI readiness showing the strongest correlation (r = 0.36, p < .001).
• Mediation Analysis (H2 Partially Supported):
  • The direct effect of educational level on PSE remained significant after including mediators (β = 0.227, p < .05).
  • The combined indirect effect through all four AI subfactors was not significant.
  • However, AI readiness emerged as the only significant individual mediator (β = 0.120, p < .01). The indirect effects through AI knowledge, AI relevance, and AI attitude were not significant.
  • The total effect (direct + indirect) was significant (β = 0.308, p < .001), and the model explained 19.6% of the variance in PSE.

5. Discussion and Implications

This study is the first to empirically link parents’ AI literacy to their parenting self-efficacy in children’s education. The findings confirm that higher education is associated with both greater AI literacy and higher PSE. Crucially, the mediation analysis reveals that AI readiness—the perceived comfort and preparedness to use AI technologies in daily life—is the key mechanism through which educational background translates into greater parenting confidence. Simply having knowledge about AI, perceiving its relevance, or holding a positive attitude toward it was not sufficient; the practical sense of being ready to use it was what mattered.

Theoretical Contributions:

• Extends Belsky’s model by incorporating AI literacy as a significant parent-related factor in the digital age.
• Unpacks AI literacy into its subdimensions, revealing the unique and central role of AI readiness.

Practical Implications for Policymakers and Educators:

• Targeted Interventions: Training programs for parents should move beyond teaching basic AI concepts and focus on building practical readiness and confidence in using AI tools to support children’s learning.
• Curriculum Design: Parent education initiatives should include hands-on workshops, simulations, and resources that help parents translate their existing AI familiarity into actionable parenting practices.
• Addressing the Digital Divide: Given the link between education and AI literacy, targeted support may be needed for parents with lower educational attainment to ensure equitable access to the benefits of AI in parenting.

6. Limitations and Future Research

Limitations include the cross-sectional design (precluding causal claims), reliance on self-reported AI literacy, a predominantly female sample, and the unique technological context of Hong Kong (limiting generalizability). Future research should use longitudinal designs, develop AI literacy scales specifically for parents, include more diverse samples, and explore how AI readiness translates into specific parenting behaviors that influence child outcomes.